Diabetes is caused by multiple factors and is most simply characterized by elevated levels of plasma glucose (hyperglycemia) in the fasting state. There are two generally recognized forms of diabetes: type 1 diabetes, or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), in which patients produce little or no insulin, the hormone which regulates glucose utilization, and type 2 diabetes, or noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), wherein patients produce insulin and even exhibit hyperinsulinemia (plasma insulin levels that are the same or even elevated in comparison with non-diabetic subjects), while at the same time demonstrating hyperglycemia. Type 1 diabetes is typically treated with exogenous insulin administered via injection. However, type 2 diabetics often develop “insulin resistance”, such that the effect of insulin in stimulating glucose and lipid metabolism in the main insulin-sensitive tissues, namely, muscle, liver and adipose tissues, is diminished. Patients who are insulin resistant but not diabetic have elevated insulin levels that compensate for their insulin resistance, so that serum glucose levels are not elevated. In patients with NIDDM, the plasma insulin levels, even when they are elevated, are insufficient to overcome the pronounced insulin resistance, resulting in hyperglycemia.
Insulin resistance is primly due to a receptor binding defect that is not yet completely understood. Resistance to insulin results in insufficient activation of glucose uptake, diminished oxidation of glucose and storage of glycogen in muscle, inadequate insulin repression of lipolysis in adipose tissue and inadequate glucose production and secretion by the liver.
Persistent or uncontrolled hyperglycemia that occurs in diabetics is associated with increased morbidity and premature mortality. Abnormal glucose homeostasis is also associated both directly and indirectly with obesity, hypertension and alterations in lipid, lipoprotein and apolipoprotein metabolism. Type 2 diabetics are at increased risk of developing cardiovascular complications, e.g., atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, stroke, peripheral vascular disease, hypertension, nephropathy, neuropathy and retinopathy. Therefore, therapeutic control of glucose homeostasis, lipid metabolism, obesity and hypertension are critically important in the clinical management and treatment of diabetes mellitus.
Many patients who have insulin resistance but have not developed type 2 diabetes are also at a risk of developing symptoms referred to as “Syndrome X” or “Metabolic Syndrome”. Syndrome X or Metabolic Syndrome is characterized by insulin resistance, along with abdominal obesity, hyperinsulinemia, high blood pressure, low HDL and high VLDL. These patients, whether or not they develop overt diabetes mellitus, are at increased risk of developing the cardiovascular complications listed above.
Treatment of type 2 diabetes typically includes physical exercise and dieting: Increasing the plasma level of insulin by administration of sulfonylureas (e.g. tolbutamide and glipizide) or meglitinide, which stimulate the pancreatic β-cells to secrete more insulin, and/or by injection of insulin when sulfonylureas or meglitinide become ineffective, can result in insulin concentrations high enough to stimulate insulin-resistant tissues. However, dangerously low levels of plasma glucose can result, and an increased level of insulin resistance can ultimately occur.
Biguanides increase insulin sensitivity, resulting in some correction of hyperglycemia. However, many biguanides, e.g., phenformin and metformin, cause lactic acidosis, nausea and diarrhea.
The glitazones (i.e. 5-benzylthiazolidine-2,4-diones) form a newer class of compounds with the potential for ameliorating hyperglycemia and other symptoms of type 2 diabetes. These agents substantially increase insulin sensitivity in muscle, liver and adipose tissue, resulting in partial or complete correction of the elevated plasma levels of glucose substantially without causing hypoglycemia. The glitazones that are currently marketed are agonists of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) gamma subtype. PPAR-gamma agonism is generally believed to be responsible for the improved insulin sensitization that is observed with the glitazones. Newer PPAR agonists that are being developed for treatment of Type 2 diabetes and/or dyslipidemria are agonists of one or more of the PPAR alpha, gamma and delta subtypes. For a review of insulin-sensitizing agents and other mechanisms for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, see M. Tadayyon and S. A. Smith, “Insulin sensitisation in the treatment of type 2 diabetes,” Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs, 12: 307-324 (2003).
There is a continuing need for new methods of treating diabetes and related conditions, such as metabolic syndrome. The present invention meets this and other needs.